https://screenpal.com/watch/cZVfj7VHkJt (Please copy into browser) "Cephalomorph Trophy Head Sculpture" of Bald Head of Old Man is a representation of an individual in the Moche style, possibly a dignitary or an important figure. Peruvian art often depicted human figures with distinct features, such as wrinkled faces and expressive expressions, reflecting their skill in portraying realism and individuality. The Trophy Head cult was a significant aspect of various pre-Columbian cultures in the Americas, including the Inca civilisation. This practice involved the collection, preservation, and sometimes display of human heads as symbols of power, conquest, and religious significance. In the Inca Empire, as well as among several pre-Columbian societies, the act of collecting trophy heads had multifaceted meanings and was deeply rooted in religious and ritualistic beliefs. Warriors sought to capture enemy combatants alive to bring them back to their communities for sacrifice. The process of obtaining these heads was seen as a sacred and ceremonial act that validated a warrior's prowess in battle and demonstrated the strength of their society. The ritual of collecting trophy heads was a way to demonstrate the domination of one group over another. It was believed that by taking an opponent's head, the captor gained control not just over the physical body but also over the spirit and power of the defeated enemy. These heads were often displayed in public places or used in ceremonies, showcasing the strength and military success of the community. Inca society, specifically, had a structured belief system that incorporated various rituals and ceremonies. The capture of trophy heads was linked to their religious practices, including offerings to gods or ancestors. It was believed that by presenting these heads as offerings, they could appease the deities or gain favour for their community. Additionally, these heads were sometimes used in elaborate rituals, such as the Capacocha ceremony, a form of human sacrifice practised by the Inca. The sacrifice of captives and their heads was a part of these ceremonies, considered vital to maintaining cosmic balance and ensuring the prosperity of the empire. While the Trophy Head cult was a significant part of many pre-Columbian cultures, its exact practices and significance varied among different societies. However, across these civilisations, the act of collecting and displaying trophy heads held immense cultural, religious, and symbolic importance, serving as a testament to the power and beliefs of these ancient peoples. Alloy Metallurgy The availability of certain metals also played a crucial role in determining the composition of these alloys. Andean societies had access to various mineral resources, and they utilised what was readily available to them. This influenced the choice of alloying elements. If a particular region had abundant zinc or nickel resources, it might lead to a higher usage of these metals in the local copper alloys. The knowledge and technological expertise of the metallurgists of these civilisations also played a role in alloy composition. They experimented with different ratios of metals to achieve the desired properties and characteristics for specific applications. It's important to note that the exact composition of these alloys can vary widely between different artefacts and time periods. There isn't a single fixed composition for Ancient Peruvian copper alloys because each piece was tailored to its specific purpose and the available resources at the time of creation. Analysing the composition of these alloys through modern techniques like X-ray fluorescence or mass spectrometry has provided valuable insights into the metallurgical sophistication of these ancient cultures. The continuity of traditional metallurgy skills from the Pre-Columbian and Inca cultures during the colonial period in Peru is indeed a complex and multifaceted historical phenomenon. This topic sheds light on the resilience of indigenous knowledge and the ways in which it adapted and transformed in the face of European colonisation. To explore this topic in depth, we can examine it from several angles. The use of nickel and zinc in copper alloys in Peru can be linked to the influence of European metallurgy, especially during the colonial period. Some Andean cultures, such as the Lambayeque, the Chancay, and the Inca, used these metals for making various objects such as ceremonial knives, funerary masks, vessels, and ornaments. Regarded today for their craftsmanship and historical significance, their metalworking techniques involved the use of copper, gold, silver, and metal alloys. Ancient metalworkers of Peru experimented with different alloys of copper, tin, gold, silver, and other metals to create various colours, strengths, and effects. Zinc and nickel were among the metals that were sometimes added to copper to produce bronze alloys. For example, one source states that a bronze knife from Peru had a composition of 82% copper, 13% zinc, 3% nickel, and 2% iron. Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America Another source mentions that some Peruvian bronze objects had up to 5% zinc and 1% nickel: Ancient metalworking in South America: a 3000-year-old copper mask from the Argentinian Andes. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/ancient-metalworking-in-south-america-a-3000yearold-copper-mask-from-the-argentinian-andes/80E3CFE81BC10CFFA5602230A16B40DF Pre-Columbian Metallurgy in the Andes: Before the arrival of the Spanish in the early 16th century, the Andean region, including what is now modern-day Peru, was home to advanced metallurgical practices. The Inca Empire, in particular, was known for its skilled metalworkers who crafted intricate jewellery, ceremonial objects, and tools primarily from gold and silver. This metallurgical expertise was deeply ingrained in the Inca society and had religious and cultural significance. Impact of Spanish Conquest: With the arrival of the Spanish, many aspects of indigenous cultures, including metallurgy, were disrupted. The Spanish sought to extract precious metals for export, leading to the exploitation of indigenous labour and the melting down of precious objects. This disruption threatened the continuity of indigenous metallurgical skills. Syncretism and Adaptation: Despite the disruptions, indigenous artisans adapted to the new colonial context. They began to incorporate European techniques and materials, such as copper, into their traditional practices. This led to a fusion of indigenous and European styles, resulting in unique forms of colonial art and jewellery that incorporated elements of both worlds. Continuation of Traditional Knowledge: In some cases, indigenous metallurgists managed to preserve their traditional knowledge secretly. They continued to create pieces in the pre-Columbian style, hidden from Spanish authorities. This underground resistance allowed the preservation of traditional techniques and forms. Religious and Cultural Significance: Metallurgy had profound religious and cultural significance in the Andean societies. Many of the objects created during the colonial period continued to be used in religious ceremonies and were essential for maintaining cultural identity. Legacy and Revival: The resilience of traditional metallurgy skills is reflected in the continued existence of skilled indigenous artisans in Peru. In the modern era, there has been a resurgence of interest in traditional techniques and a revival of pre-Columbian styles in contemporary art and jewellery. References: Rowe, John H. "Inca culture at the time of the Spanish conquest." Handbook of South American Indians, Vol. 2: The Andean Civilizations (1946). Brundage, Burr Cartwright. "Empire of the Inca." University of Oklahoma Press, 1963. Bray, Tamara L., et al. "Materializing colonial encounters: Peruvian silverwork, 1600-1800." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 10.1 (2000): 55-77. Peters, Damie. "Crafting Inca jewelry in the Spanish colonial Andes: Metalwork, gender, and material culture." In Gender in Pre-Hispanic America, pp. 73-95. Springer, 2017. Moore, Jerry D. "Metals and Metallurgy in the Pre-Columbian Americas." Handbook of South American Archaeology (2008): 51-67. This complex history of continuity and adaptation in metallurgy is a testament to the resilience and cultural richness of indigenous traditions in the face of colonial challenges. Salvador Rovira "Inca metallurgy: study from the collections of the Museum of America in Madrid" https://journals.openedition.org/bifea/8155 Artwork with well-documented legal provenance and Spanish Historical Patrimony Export Certificate. The Ministry of Culture from Spain asks all sellers for invoices or other documentation able to prove the legality of each item before providing an import or export license. Family Heirloom Private Collection Ex. Dr Rivadeneyra collection, Berlin late 1960s to early 1970s. To present owner by descent. Collected through the years by my father Dr. Jose Rivadeneyra Leon and by my grandfather Engr. Julio Rivadeneyra who lived in northern Peru central coast near Chiclayo. Privately purchased and/or gifted by family members who loved collecting like his cousin, Carlos Williams Leon who was a Peruvian renowned architect and archeologist. https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Williams_Le%C3%B3n Most of the collection was taken to Berlin in 1969 where my father was doing medical research. The seller will provide all provenance information about the object to the buyer. The seller ensures that any necessary permits are/will be arranged. The seller will inform the buyer immediately about any delays in obtaining such permits. If the piece goes outside the European Union a new export license will be requested by us, this process can take between 1 and 2 months. According to Spanish legislation, items sent outside the European Union are subject to export taxes and will be added to the invoice, at the buyer's expense. These export fees are fixed on the final auction price and the tax rate is not applied directly on the total value of the item to be exported, rather the different percentages by sections are applied to it: - Up to 6,000 euros: 5%..- Shipped with Insurance. Item legal to buy/sell under U.S. Statute covering cultural patrimony Code 2600, CHAPTER 14 This object is subject to the UNESCO Cultural Heritage Protection Act. For shipment to a non-EU member state, export regulations will vary.