The primary function of a pen box (qalamdan) was as a writing instrument - made of papier-mâché, wood, or other materials, including precious metals - intended to contain a number of tools associated with the art and act of writing, including a reed pen, an inkwell, liqah (a cotton substance used to absorb excess ink), a penknife, a qat'zan (a flat horn support plate), a whetstone, a small spoon, and scissors. These accessories were considered essential items for a scribe. The box containing these items was considered, by association, as important as the person handling its contents, the quality of the box's decoration directly reflecting the status of the scribe or patron. Pen boxes were carried by scribes of all ranks, often tucked into the shawls tied around their waists, symbolizing a badge of their craft. So prized was the pen case that even the Shahs commissioned them; these rare examples are attested by their inscriptions. The earliest examples of this type date from the reign of Shah Sulayman Safavi (1664–1695), but there are also later Qajar examples, commissioned by members of the high bureaucracy throughout the 19th century. Although this pen case does not bear the artist's inscription Ya Shah-I Najaf ("O King of Najaf!"), the details of the decoration and its style strongly resemble those of the well-known Qajar artist or perhaps another artist in his circle. Aqa Najaf, as he is also known, was responsible for lacquer pieces produced sometime between 1810 and 1860, with a style that formed a bridge between the works of the late 18th century and the long reign of Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar (1848–1896), during which Najaf Ali's sons continued to play a leading role in lacquer production. Be careful, the box has some flaking lacquer!