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Zena Chiara Masud

FOUNDATIONAL WORK IN MEDICAL NOSOLOGY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

This is the second edition of Cullen’s famous work in which he classified diseases into four categories: fevers, neurosis, cachexias and local disorders. “Cullen was the foremost British clinical teacher of his time, one of the first to give clinical lectures in Great Britain.” (Garrison-Morton). The second part contains synopses of Francois Bossier de Sauvage’s Nosologia methodica (first published 1763), Linnaeus’ Genera morborum (1763), and Vogel’s Definitiones generum morborum (1764).

Efforts to classify all diseases were referred to as nosology.

This is the 1775 Amsterdam edition of one of the foundational works in the scientific classification of diseases, authored by William Cullen (1710–1790), professor of medicine at the University of Edinburgh. The first edition was printed in 1769 in Edinburgh and the last copy to appear at auction was Haskell Norman’s copy in 1998. The present book is beautifully bound in contemporary mottled calf, with gilt floral tooling on the spine and the gilt title CULLEN APPARA AD NOS (short for Apparatus ad Nosologiam). 

Cullen’s Apparatus ad Nosologiam Methodicam is a systematic synopsis of disease classification, originally intended as a teaching aid for medical students. 

It represents one of the earliest modern attempts to organize diseases based on symptomatology and pathophysiology rather than purely on external signs. This work stands as a bridge between the taxonomic rationalism of Linnaeus and the clinical empiricism of later 18th- and early 19th-century medicine.

Cullen drew inspiration from Carl Linnaeus’s (1707–1778) biological taxonomy, adopting a similar hierarchical structure—classes, orders, genera, and species—but applied it to human diseases instead of plants or animals. His goal was to bring the precision and systematization of natural history to medical diagnosis. Like Linnaeus, Cullen sought an elegant balance between classification by appearance and by underlying cause, introducing a systematic order that helped standardize medical teaching in Europe for decades.

This edition also reflects Cullen’s engagement with the earlier work of François Boissier de Sauvages de Lacroix (1706–1767), whose Nosologia Methodica (first edition 1731, greatly expanded in 1763) was the first full-scale attempt to classify diseases using a Linnaean model. Cullen admired and adapted Sauvages’s framework but criticized its excessive granularity (Sauvages listed over 2,400 diseases). In contrast, Cullen reduced and reorganized the system, focusing on symptomatic and physiological relationships among diseases rather than simple descriptive grouping. His “Nosology” thus became the foundation of the Edinburgh medical school curriculum and was widely translated and disseminated across Europe.

This 1775 Amsterdam edition by Frères de Tournes, a distinguished Genevan publishing family active in both Geneva and Amsterdam, is bibliographically significant as the key continental printings of Cullen’s system, reflecting the wide European dissemination of Scottish Enlightenment medical thought.

Cullen was the most conspicuous figure in the history of the Edinburgh Medical School during the 18th century. He was an inspiring teacher and was instrumental in founding the Glasgow Medical School in 1744. His clinical lectures were notable as being the first given in the vernacular instead of in Latin.

THE HISTORY OF NOSOLOGIES AND THE CURRENT CONTEXT FOR CULLEN'S WORK: 

Cullen’s nosology marks a turning point in the history of medical classification. It represents one of the first truly “systematic” disease taxonomies, preceding the 19th-century pathological and etiological classifications that emerged with Bichat, Virchow, and the rise of cellular pathology. 

Cullen’s approach influenced generations of physicians, including Philippe Pinel in France and Thomas Sydenham’s later interpreters, and remained in medical curricula well into the early 19th century. His terms “neuroses,” “pyrexiae,” and “cachexiae” would echo through medical literature for decades.

This book is divided into four parts in a sort of pseudo-Linnean classification system going from genera to species of disease. In our view, a false precision that has no relationship to underlying human biology. To state the obvious, while historically significant, unlike animal speciation, there is no organic way to classify diseases. Cullen’s work can be described as an impressive albeit flowery polysyllabic latinate effort to find a structure in biology that is simply not supported by science.

We view Cullen’s effort as a sort of last gasp of scholasticism – coming in about 50 years before the key discoveries in cell and molecular biology that once and for all set the direction of medicine for the period of 1800 to the present day. While we still focus on organ systems and underlying biology today, there has been no settled classification system that goes through disease classes like “fissura”, “rupture”, “amputura” etc.

BOOK DESCRIPTION AND CONDITION: 

Woodcut printer's device on title with Latin motto “Quod tibi fieri non vis, alteri ne feceris” (Do unto other as you would have done unto you) and engraved chapter tail-piece at end of Cullen's preface. The contemporary mottled calf binding remains firm and well-preserved, with only minor rubbing to the corners and small losses at the head of the spine. The gilt spine tooling is clear and appealing, with floral ornaments in each compartment and the original title legible. The edges are stained red, and the marbled endpapers are striking examples of late 18th-century European bookbinding aesthetics. The paper used to print this book is spectacular with a linen feel, although, unfortunately, the first 22 leaves and last 3 leaves of this book have a visible waterstain, This stain does not block the readability of the text in any way. Indeed, the text block is clean, crisp, and square, with only faint marginal toning. The marbled endpapers are original and vivid, the red-stained edges fresh, and the paper quality excellent, typical of late-18th-century Dutch printing. Quarto. Pagination: viii 284 (19). 25 x 20cm. Overall: A very good, bright, and attractive copy.  

RARITY ANALYSIS: 

This book is rare. Cullen’s 1775 nosology appears in only 32 libraries worldwide (OCLC). Rare Book Hub (RBH) shows only three cases where the 1775 edition of this book has sold at auction in the last century – all before 1975. There are no contemporary price benchmarks. This book is considered an important medical rarity that commands high prices. To illustrate, the 1769 edition sold for $1500 in 1970 ($11k in today’s currency) and has not sold since at auction.

PROVENANCE: 

This book was previously owned by Arthur Tatossian, a famed French medical bibliophile. Arthur Tatossian (1929–1995) was a French psychiatrist and phenomenological thinker of Armenian descent, regarded as one of the foremost exponents of phenomenological psychiatry in the 20th century. A professor of psychiatry at Strasbourg, he is best known for his influential book La Phénoménologie des psychoses (1979), in which he applied Husserlian and Heideggerian phenomenology to the clinical understanding of schizophrenia and psychosis. Tatossian emphasized the importance of grasping the patient’s lived experience rather than reducing mental illness solely to biological or behavioral categories, making him a key figure in bridging philosophy and psychiatry. His work continues to inspire contemporary discussions in psychopathology, hermeneutics, and the philosophy of psychiatry.

ABOUT WILLIAM CULLEN: 

William Cullen (1710–1790) was a Scottish physician, chemist, and educator whose influence on medical theory and teaching made him one of the most important figures of the Scottish Enlightenment. Born in Hamilton, Lanarkshire, the son of a lawyer to the Duke of Hamilton, Cullen studied at the University of Glasgow and apprenticed to the Glasgow surgeon-apothecary John Paisley before serving briefly as a ship’s surgeon and working in London. After earning his M.D. from Glasgow in 1740, he began practicing medicine and lecturing in Glasgow, where his clear and methodical teaching style soon attracted students from across Britain. He became Professor of Medicine at the University of Glasgow in 1751, then moved to the University of Edinburgh in 1755, where he succeeded Andrew Plummer as Professor of Chemistry and later held the chairs of the Institutes of Medicine and the Practice of Physic. At Edinburgh, Cullen emerged as one of the most celebrated medical teachers of his age, training a generation of British and American physicians, including Joseph Black, William Withering, Benjamin Rush, John Morgan, and Gilbert Blane. His lectures, delivered in English rather than Latin, helped professionalize medical instruction and made Edinburgh the leading medical school of the 18th century. Cullen’s intellectual work sought to systematize medicine in the spirit of Enlightenment rationalism: he classified diseases by symptoms and physiological causes, creating a nosological scheme that paralleled Carl Linnaeus’s taxonomy of plants and animals. Building on the vast disease catalogue of François Boissier de Sauvages, Cullen refined and simplified the classification into practical clinical categories such as pyrexiae (fevers), neuroses, cachexiae, and locales, laying the groundwork for modern medical nomenclature and the eventual development of disease classification systems like the ICD. Among his principal works were Synopsis Nosologiae Methodicae, First Lines of the Practice of Physic, Institutes of Medicine, and Treatise of the Materia Medica. He was also a pioneer in chemistry and physical science—credited with demonstrating artificial refrigeration through evaporative cooling in 1756—and a central figure in the intellectual circles of Adam Smith and David Hume. Cullen served as President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh and as Physician in Scotland to King George III. He married Anne Johnstone in 1741 and had several children, including the physician Henry Cullen and the jurist Robert Cullen (Lord Cullen). He died at his home in Kirknewton near Edinburgh on 5 February 1790, leaving behind a legacy that united Enlightenment natural philosophy with the emerging scientific medicine of the modern age.

REFERENCES: 

Garrison-Morton 2204; Norman 539.


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William Cullen - Synopsis Nosologiae Methodicae (Apparatus ad Nosologiam Methodicam) - 1775

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