ISLAMIC – Volga-Bulgar Imitative Coinage Silver Dirham, early 10th century Date: c. AH 330 (AD 941/942) Mint: Uncertain (Samarqand type) Weight: 3.49 g  Diameter: 25 mm Reference: cf. Zeno 21873 Condition: Very Fine lightly wavy ________________________________________ Description This silver dirham is an imitative issue of the Volga-Bulghar realm, closely copying a Samanid dirham of Naṣr ibn Aḥmad (r. AH 301–331 / AD 914–943), originally struck at Samarqand. The coin retains the general layout and religious formulae of official Samanid coinage, including the name of the Abbasid caliph al-Muqtadir billāh (r. AH 295–320 / AD 908–932), but displays several features characteristic of Volga-Bulgar production. The mint and date inscriptions are abbreviated and poorly rendered, and the Arabic Kufic script is uneven and stylized, reflecting a copied rather than formally engraved prototype. These stylistic traits—along with the slightly heavier fabric—are typical of Volga-Bulgar dirhams struck for regional circulation and long-distance trade. ________________________________________ Historical Background The Volga-Bulghars, a Turkic people settled along the Volga–Kama river system (in modern-day Russia), adopted Islam officially in AH 310 / AD 922, following diplomatic and religious contact with the Abbasid Caliphate. Despite their conversion, they did not initially possess a fully developed Islamic minting tradition. Instead, they imitated well-known and trusted Islamic silver currencies, particularly the widely circulating dirhams of the Samanid dynasty. By the early 4th century AH (early 10th century AD), Samanid dirhams dominated international trade routes linking Central Asia, the Islamic world, and Northern Europe, especially via the Volga trade corridor. Volga-Bulgar imitative issues such as this example were struck to facilitate commerce while maintaining religious and political legitimacy through the continued citation of the Abbasid caliph. These coins represent a transitional phase in Islamic monetary history, blending orthodox Islamic inscriptions with provincial craftsmanship. They are especially important for understanding the spread of Islam, economic integration, and cultural exchange between the Islamic heartlands and northern Eurasia.